5 Choosing an Appropriate Research Design

This chapter focuses on selecting the most suitable qualitative research design to explore your phenomenon of interest. The five primary designs commonly used in qualitative research are ethnography, phenomenology, grounded theory, narrative inquiry, and case study. In this chapter, you will learn the key features of each design, the types of research questions they address, and the situations where each is most appropriate.

The Art of Choosing

To every question, a path must align,

A methodology, carefully designed.

In the vast field of qualitative ways,

Each approach its own story conveys.

Ethnography whispers: “Come and see,

The rhythms of culture, the dance of ‘we.’

Immerse yourself in the lives of a few,

Understand their world from a lens that’s true.”

Phenomenology speaks of what’s felt,

The essence of moments, how they’ve dwelt.

“Explore the lived, the deeply profound,

Find the universal in what’s unbound.”

Grounded Theory builds from the ground,

Patterns and processes newly found.

“Through data’s layers, a theory will rise,

Explaining the ‘how,’ with no disguise.”

Narrative Inquiry tells its tale,

The threads of lives in detail prevail.

“Stories are bridges to meaning and more,

Connecting the personal to the social lore.”

Case Study declares: “Focus here,

A bounded system, specific and clear.

Explore the depth of a single scene,

Unravel its layers to know what they mean.”

So pause, dear scholar, and thoughtfully choose,

The path that aligns with the questions you use.

For each methodology, a lens, a view,

To illuminate truths both old and new.

Up to now, we have covered how to write purpose statements and research questions in qualitative research. Further, we covered how to conduct literature review in qualitative research. In this chapter we will learn how to choose an appropriate qualitative research design for your qualitative research project.

Qualitative research has a rich and long tradition with rich philosophical underpinnings. Although there are various research designs used in qualitative research, all these research designs can be broadly categorized in five main traditions: ethnography, phenomenology, case study, grounded theory, and narrative inquiry. In this chapter, we will explore in detail these five traditions including historical background, focus, key features, and how to determine which research design is suitable to answer a research question. Toward the end, you will practice your skills in choosing a qualitative research design based on the focus and research questions. The following section offers a detailed description of each of these five traditions.

Ethnography

Among the five main traditions of qualitative research, ethnography is considered one of the oldest methods of qualitative research. Its roots can be traced back to ancient times when travelers, explorers, and historians documented observations of the diverse cultures and communities they encountered. Ethnography formally emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries as a systematic research method within anthropology. Unlike other qualitative methods that developed later, such as phenomenology, grounded theory, and narrative inquiry, ethnography’s emphasis on participant observation and cultural immersion laid the groundwork for qualitative research. It also established key practices like fieldwork and detailed descriptive accounts, which are central to qualitative inquiry today.

Ethnographic research design is used in qualitative research when the goal is to understand a particular culture, community, or social group in depth. It originated in anthropology and sociology and involves the researcher immersing themselves within the community to observe, interact, and participate in daily life over an extended period. Ethnography is ideal for exploring the social structure, traditions, rituals, values, and beliefs of a group, providing a holistic, richly detailed view of the group’s cultural practices. For example, let’s say you want to explore how high school students from immigrant families in a rural, low-income area navigate their cultural identities and academic aspirations. In such a study, you would examine the unique challenges these students face and the support systems that influence their school experience and future goals. This research might ask questions like: How do students from immigrant backgrounds balance cultural expectations from home with those of their school environment? or What role do teachers, counselors, and community resources play in supporting students’ academic and personal development? You may also investigate how students’ cultural identities and family backgrounds impact their educational aspirations and career goals.

Ethnographic research is particularly suitable when:

The Focus is on Understanding Cultural or Social Practices: Ethnography is used to study cultures, subcultures, or social groups within their natural settings to understand their social practices, beliefs, values, and behaviors. For example, a researcher might conduct an ethnography within a small fishing community to explore how local traditions, environmental changes, and economic pressures impact the community’s way of life. By living within the community and observing daily activities like fishing practices, market exchanges, and community gatherings, the researcher can gain insights into how members adapt to challenges, preserve cultural practices, and support each other, providing a nuanced view of the community’s social fabric and resilience.

Extended Immersion is Required: Ethnography involves prolonged immersion in the community, often for several months or even years, allowing the researcher to deeply observe and interact with members to gain a nuanced understanding of the culture. In the fishing community, this might mean spending extensive time with fishers on the boats, in the markets, and in community centers, observing their daily routines and interactions. Extended immersion helps the researcher understand the subtle ways in which environmental shifts and economic pressures influence the community’s practices, as well as how members support each other in times of difficulty.

The Research Requires a Holistic View: Ethnographers aim to capture how different aspects of a culture—such as social interactions, rituals, traditions, and values—intersect and influence each other, providing a comprehensive view of the social group. In the fishing community, for example, the researcher would examine not only the fishing practices but also how these practices relate to family traditions, religious beliefs, local economy, and environmental conservation efforts. This holistic approach helps illuminate the ways in which the community’s values and practices are interconnected, painting a full picture of the culture’s complexity and adaptability.

Types of Research Questions in Ethnographic Research

Ethnographic research typically answers questions that seek to understand cultural and social dynamics within a specific group. These questions might include:

• What are the cultural practices and values of this community?
• How do members of this group interact, communicate, and organize themselves?
• What rituals, traditions, or routines are central to this group’s identity?
• How do members of the group perceive and make sense of their world?

For instance, questions like “What are the daily life practices of a fishing community?” or “How do blue-collar workers in a specific town perceive their social and economic challenges?” are ethnographic in nature. These questions aim to understand not only what people do but also the meanings behind their practices and beliefs within their cultural context.

Key Features of Ethnographic Research Design

Participant Observation: Ethnography’s hallmark feature is participant observation, where the researcher immerses themselves in the community to observe and participate in everyday life, allowing for a deeper understanding of social practices and interactions.

Holistic Perspective: Ethnography provides a comprehensive view of the culture by examining not only specific practices but also how different cultural elements, like social interactions, rituals, and values, influence and interact with each other.

Cultural Relativism: Ethnographers strive to understand the community from the insiders’ perspective, setting aside their own cultural biases to avoid judgment and respect the unique practices and beliefs of the community they are studying.

Thick Description: Ethnographers produce detailed descriptions of their observations, capturing the nuances and contexts of cultural practices. This thick description allows readers to understand the subtleties and complexities of the culture being studied.

Emic and Etic Perspectives: Ethnography balances emic (insider) and etic (outsider) perspectives by incorporating both the views of community members and the researcher’s observations.

Flexibility and Adaptability: Ethnographic research is flexible, allowing researchers to adapt their approach based on emerging insights and the community’s needs. This adaptability ensures that the research is sensitive to the group’s cultural dynamics.

Reflexivity: Ethnographers practice reflexivity, remaining mindful of their biases and cultural influences to avoid distorting their interpretations of the community they study.

Narrative Reporting: Ethnographic findings are typically reported in a narrative, storytelling format that captures the richness of the culture and provides an evocative, immersive experience for readers.

In summary, ethnographic research design is used when researchers seek to gain an in-depth, culturally sensitive understanding of a group’s practices, beliefs, and social interactions. By immersing themselves in the group over an extended period, ethnographers collect detailed observations that help illuminate the group’s worldview, traditions, and social structures. Ethnographic questions are open-ended and exploratory, focusing on understanding the group’s life from an insider’s perspective to provide a comprehensive and meaningful representation of the culture or community.

Phenomenology

The methodology of phenomenological qualitative research emerged from the philosophy of phenomenology, which originated in the early 20th century with the work of German philosopher Edmund Husserl. Husserl is often regarded as the father of phenomenology, as he introduced the idea of studying conscious experiences from a first-person perspective, arguing that experiences should be examined as they appear to consciousness without preconceived notions or judgments. Husserl’s work emphasized the importance of “bracketing” or setting aside prior knowledge and assumptions to access the pure essence of an experience.

Phenomenology later evolved through the contributions of philosophers such as Martin Heidegger, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, and Jean-Paul Sartre, each expanding on Husserl’s ideas. Heidegger, for example, introduced the concept of being-in-the-world, emphasizing that individuals’ experiences are always situated within a particular context, making phenomenology not only a study of individual perception but also of the ways individuals engage with the world around them. Merleau-Ponty brought attention to the role of the body in perception, suggesting that experiences are inherently embodied, while Sartre highlighted the importance of freedom and choice in shaping experiences.

These developments in phenomenological philosophy laid the groundwork for phenomenological research design in qualitative research, which is used when the goal is to explore and understand the lived experiences of individuals who have directly encountered a particular phenomenon. Rooted in these philosophical foundations, phenomenological research focuses on capturing the essence of these experiences as they are subjectively perceived by individuals, emphasizing how people make sense of the phenomenon they are experiencing. This design values participants’ descriptions of their thoughts, feelings, and insights, providing a rich, in-depth understanding of complex human experiences.

Phenomenological research design is particularly suitable when:

The Research Focus is on Lived Experiences: Phenomenology is employed to delve deeply into individuals’ first-hand experiences of a phenomenon, such as the lived experience of students who are the first in their families to attend college. Researchers might explore the challenges these students face, like navigating unfamiliar academic expectations, balancing family responsibilities with coursework, and managing feelings of isolation or pressure. By examining these lived experiences, phenomenology can illuminate how first-generation students make sense of college life and develop resilience. Similarly, phenomenology can be used to study the experiences of women who have gone through a miscarriage. This research might delve into the complex emotions of grief, loss, and healing, as well as how these women experience social support, or lack thereof, from family and friends. The approach provides a window into what it truly feels like to endure this difficult experience, capturing the depth and nuances of their emotional and social worlds.

The Goal is to Uncover the Essence of a Phenomenon: The aim is to identify the essence of the phenomenon—its core, universal qualities. This involves understanding both the underlying meanings that individuals attach to their experiences and the structure of these experiences. In the case of first-generation college students, uncovering the essence may involve identifying the feelings of both pride and vulnerability that are central to their journey, as well as how these feelings influence their academic and personal lives. For women who have experienced a miscarriage, the essence might include common emotional themes of loss, guilt, and longing, along with the ways in which they find meaning or seek closure. Through phenomenology, researchers strive to capture these shared elements that transcend individual stories, providing insights that reveal what is universal about these deeply personal experiences.

Minimal Influence of Preconceived Notions: Researchers using phenomenology intentionally set aside (or “bracket”) any preconceived ideas or assumptions to focus purely on how participants describe and interpret their experiences. For example, when studying the lived experiences of first-generation college students, researchers avoid assuming what challenges these students face or how they perceive college life. Instead, they approach each interview and observation without preconceptions, allowing the unique voices of the students to emerge, whether they speak about feelings of pride, isolation, or resilience. Similarly, when researching the experiences of women who have gone through a miscarriage, researchers refrain from imposing assumptions about grief or emotional recovery. By setting aside any biases, they remain fully receptive to each participant’s perspective, which may reveal unexpected insights about the complex and varied ways women process this experience. This approach helps capture the genuine essence of each participant’s journey without interference from the researcher’s own beliefs or expectations.

Types of Research Questions in Phenomenological Research

Phenomenological research answers questions centered around the lived experiences of individuals and the essence of these experiences. These questions might include:

• What is it like to experience [phenomenon]?
• How do individuals describe their experience of [phenomenon]?
• What meaning do people attach to their experience of [phenomenon]?
• How does the experience of [phenomenon] unfold for individuals?

For instance, questions like “What is the lived experience of pain for cancer patients?” or “How do first-generation university students describe their journey?” are phenomenological in nature. They seek not just factual information but a deep, meaningful understanding of the phenomenon from the participants’ perspectives.

Grounded Theory

Grounded theory research design is used in qualitative research when the goal is to develop a theory grounded in the data, particularly one that explains the social processes, patterns, or frameworks underlying a phenomenon. Developed by Anselm Strauss and Barney Glaser (1969), grounded theory is a systematic methodology for constructing a theoretical framework directly from empirical data, making it suitable for investigating the “how” and “why” behind social interactions, behaviors, or decision-making processes.

Grounded theory research design is particularly suitable when:

Exploring Social Processes: This design is ideal when researchers seek to understand the underlying processes within social interactions or behaviors, such as how high school seniors navigate the college selection decision-making process, weighing factors like academic programs, financial aid, social environment, and future career aspirations.

Developing a Framework for a New or Underexplored Phenomenon: Grounded theory is commonly used when a phenomenon is not well understood, and the aim is to generate a new theoretical framework rather than test existing theories. For instance, researchers might use grounded theory to explore and construct a framework around leadership development among student-athletes, identifying key factors that contribute to their growth as leaders in both sports and academic environments.

Investigating Patterns and Frameworks: Grounded theory is well-suited for identifying behavioral or social patterns, examining the conditions that shape them, and developing an explainatory framework grounded in the data collected from participants. For example, a grounded theory study might explore the process of spiritual awakening among spiritual teachers, identifying stages, influential experiences, and personal practices that contribute to their journey and teaching approaches.

Types of Research Questions in Grounded Theory Research

Grounded theory typically answers research questions that aim to uncover processes, frameworks, or patterns related to social interactions or behaviors. These questions might include:

• What processes are involved in [phenomenon]?
• How do individuals experience and navigate [social process]?
• What framework explains the behavioral patterns in [phenomenon]?
• What contextual factors influence decisions within [phenomenon]?

For example, questions like “What processes are involved in spiritual awakenings?” or “How do high school principals make disciplinary decisions?” are grounded theory questions, as they focus on understanding the sequence, stages, and influencing factors of a specific process.

Key Features of Grounded Theory Research Design

Data-Grounded Theory Development: Grounded theory involves building a theory directly from the data rather than starting with a hypothesis or a preconceived theoretical framework. Theories that emerge from this design are rooted in the experiences and perspectives of participants.

Iterative Data Collection and Analysis: Grounded theory uses a cyclical process of data collection and analysis, where findings from initial data analysis guide subsequent data collection. This iterative approach continues until data saturation is reached, meaning no new themes or patterns are emerging.

Coding Process: Grounded theory relies heavily on systematic coding to categorize data and identify patterns. Coding typically involves open coding (identifying initial themes), axial coding (linking categories to subcategories), and selective coding (refining core categories to form a theory).

Theoretical Sampling: Theoretical sampling is the process of collecting new data based on concepts that emerge during analysis. It is used to deepen or expand understanding of categories or themes and to refine the emerging theory.

Constant Comparison: This technique involves continuously comparing new data with existing codes and categories to identify patterns, similarities, and differences, ensuring that the emerging theory accurately reflects the data.

Reflexivity and Flexibility: Grounded theorists maintain reflexivity throughout the research process, adjusting their approach to data collection and analysis as new insights emerge.

Grounded theory research design is used when the objective is to develop a theory or framework to explain the social processes or patterns underlying a phenomenon. It answers research questions that explore “how” and “why” social processes unfold by examining behaviors, interactions, and contextual factors through iterative coding, constant comparison, and theoretical sampling. Grounded theory provides a structured yet flexible framework for discovering new theories grounded in real-world data, making it particularly valuable for studies in social sciences where processes are complex and not well-defined.

Narrative Inquiry

Narrative inquiry is a qualitative research design used to explore and analyze people’s stories to understand how they construct reality, shape their identities, and process their experiences. Rooted in narrative psychology, which studies the purpose and function of storytelling, narrative inquiry focuses on personal stories and how these stories influence individuals’ understanding of themselves and their world. It is particularly valuable when the aim is to delve into the meanings people assign to their life events and how those events shape their identities over time.

Narrative Inquiry research design is particularly suitable when:

The Research Focus is on Personal Stories and Experiences: It is used to understand how individuals interpret and communicate their experiences through stories, often revealing insights into identity formation, life transitions, or personal and social struggles. For example, a narrative study might explore the stories of first-generation college students, examining how they construct and express their educational journey and the challenges they face in bridging family expectations with academic life.

Exploring the Influence of Broader Contexts on Individual Stories: Narrative inquiry is also ideal for studying how personal stories connect with larger community, cultural, or societal narratives. It helps reveal how individuals’ stories are influenced by family stories, community history, and socio-political narratives. For instance, researchers could use narrative inquiry to examine the stories of immigrant families, highlighting how cultural heritage, migration experiences, and current social dynamics shape their family identity and individual narratives.

Understanding the Evolution of Experiences Over Time: Narrative inquiry acknowledges that stories evolve as individuals revisit and reinterpret their experiences. This makes it ideal for longitudinal studies where a person’s outlook or identity may change over time. An example could include a narrative study on the experiences of veterans transitioning back to civilian life, capturing how their sense of identity and purpose shifts over the years and as they reflect on their military service and reintegration into society.

Types of Research Questions in Narrative Inquiry Research

Narrative inquiry addresses research questions that focus on understanding how individuals make sense of their experiences and shape their identities through storytelling. These questions might include:

• How do individuals construct their identities through their personal stories?
• What meanings do people assign to significant life experiences?
• How do individual stories interact with or reflect broader social, cultural, or historical narratives?
• How does a particular experience influence a person’s view of themselves or the world?

For example, a narrative researcher might explore questions like “How do near-death experiences influence a person’s outlook on life?” or “How do first-generation college students’ family stories influence their educational journeys?” Such questions focus on the narrative structures through which people create meaning, interpret challenges, or connect with larger social contexts.

Key Features of Narrative Inquiry Research Design

Focus on Stories and Storytelling: Narrative inquiry centers on gathering personal stories related to the phenomenon of interest, seeking to understand how people use stories to interpret their lives, relationships, and experiences.

Constructivist Foundation: Influenced by constructivism, narrative inquiry emphasizes that reality is socially constructed. Researchers recognize that individuals’ perceptions are shaped by their interactions with others, and storytelling serves as a tool for constructing and sharing that reality.

Interconnectedness of Stories: A key concept is that stories are not isolated; they are interconnected with family, community, and broader social narratives. This perspective allows researchers to examine how individuals’ stories intersect with larger socio-cultural and political contexts.

Narrative Analysis and Resonant Threads: In narrative analysis, researchers organize stories chronologically and look for resonant threads—common patterns or themes that connect individual stories across participants. These resonant threads reveal shared experiences or meanings among participants without reducing the data to thematic categories, as is common in other qualitative approaches.

Flexibility in Data Collection: Data collection often involves in-depth interviews, repeated interactions with participants, and sometimes artifacts (e.g., photos, journals) that support the stories being shared. The goal is to capture detailed and evolving stories, sometimes returning to participants for clarification or further insights.

Emphasis on Reflexivity and Participant Voice: Narrative researchers remain reflexive, recognizing how their interpretations and perspectives might shape the data analysis. They strive to preserve the participant’s voice, allowing individuals to share their stories authentically and from their own perspectives.

Narrative inquiry is a qualitative research design used when the goal is to explore personal stories and understand how these stories shape individuals’ identities, values, and views. By analyzing interconnected stories and resonant threads, narrative researchers gain insights into how personal experiences reflect and interact with broader social narratives. Narrative inquiry is ideal for research questions focusing on the meanings and interpretations that individuals assign to their experiences, especially in contexts where identity, life transitions, or the influence of family and community stories play a central role.

Case Study

In qualitative research, a case study design is utilized when researchers aim to deeply explore a particular phenomenon within a defined context or bounded system. This research approach is especially useful when investigating complex, multifaceted phenomena in real-life settings, providing a holistic understanding of the case being studied. The fundamental principle of a case study is that it revolves around a “case,” defined as a phenomenon within a bounded system—a specific set of parameters that delimit the focus of the study. This approach can address various types of research questions and is effective for answering “how” and “why” questions, which require in-depth examination and contextual understanding.

Case study research design is particularly suitable when:

In-depth Exploration is Required: The design allows researchers to delve deeply into a phenomenon, exploring the complexities and details that may not be visible through other research approaches. For example, a case study might explore the impact of a school shooting on students, teachers, and the broader community. This approach allows the researcher to deeply investigate how the traumatic event influences students’ mental health, school policies, and community support systems, capturing details that other methods might miss. The in-depth nature of the study can reveal complex, layered effects on daily life and individual coping mechanisms that may not be apparent through surveys or short interviews.

The Phenomenon is Contextualized: Case studies are ideal when the research goal is to understand the phenomenon in its natural setting, accounting for contextual factors. A case study of a rare genetic disorder in a small community can provide a rich understanding of how the disorder affects families’ daily lives, community resources, and healthcare practices in that particular setting. This approach helps highlight unique support structures and cultural attitudes towards the condition, showing how the context shapes the experience of families, how they access medical care, and the role of community-based support.

Bounded by Parameters: The case (or phenomenon) is bounded by specific parameters—such as time, location, event, program, or people—which define the scope and limits of the study. For instance, a case study might focus on a specific event (e.g., a school shooting at a single school), a particular program (e.g., a health initiative in one county), or a location (e.g., tourism in Jacksonville). Case studies are often clearly bounded to focus on specific aspects of a phenomenon. For instance, a study of tourism in Jacksonville, Florida, might be bounded by geographic location (Jacksonville) and timeframe (one summer season). By focusing within these parameters, the researcher can delve into how tourism affects the local economy, the types of visitors attracted to the area, and the influence of seasonal events, providing a manageable scope that also respects the phenomenon’s context.

Unique, Rare, or Complex Cases: Case studies are well-suited to unique or rare phenomena, complex interventions, or multifaceted social issues that require thorough, contextual insights. For example, a case study of a rare medical condition, such as progeria, provides an opportunity to investigate the lived experiences of patients and their families, the medical challenges they face, and the role of support groups and resources. Another example might be an in-depth study of a high school that implemented a radical new education model. This case would allow researchers to examine how students, teachers, and administrators adapt to the new model, the successes and challenges encountered, and the broader implications for education reform.

Types of Research Questions in Case Study Research

Case study research is often used to answer questions that require an understanding of the processes, conditions, and contexts around a phenomenon. Typical questions in a case study design include:

• How does this phenomenon unfold within the specific bounded context?
• Why do certain outcomes emerge within this particular case?
• What are the lived experiences of people involved in or affected by the phenomenon?
• How do different factors interact within the bounded system?

Bounding the Case

Bounding a case involves clearly defining the limits of what will be studied, helping to narrow the focus and increase the depth of exploration. For example:

 

Data Collection in Case Study

Case study research typically involves collecting multiple sources of data to capture a rich, contextual understanding of the case. Researchers may use interviews, observations, documents, artifacts, or other sources to triangulate data and strengthen the findings. This approach helps to capture the complexities of the phenomenon, making case studies particularly powerful for gaining in-depth and contextually rich insights.

In sum, case study research design is used when researchers seek a comprehensive, contextualized understanding of a specific, bounded phenomenon and when the research questions demand a deep, multi-faceted examination that considers the contextual nuances surrounding the case. This method is distinguished by its flexibility in bounding cases and collecting diverse data sources, which provides a detailed and contextualized exploration of the phenomenon.

Qualitative Methodology	Focus of Methodology	Example
Ethnography	Understanding cultural or social practices within natural settings; requires extended immersion and participant observation to capture group dynamics and values.	Exploring how high school students from immigrant families in a rural area navigate their cultural identities and academic aspirations.
Phenomenology	Exploring lived experiences to capture the essence of a phenomenon as it is perceived by individuals; aims to uncover universal themes or essences through in-depth descriptions.	Investigating the lived experience of first-generation college students, focusing on their challenges, support systems, and identity formation.
Grounded Theory	Developing a theory grounded in data to explain social processes or patterns; ideal for exploring new or underexplored phenomena and identifying frameworks or stages in social interactions.	Examining the college selection decision-making process among high school seniors or the process of spiritual awakening among spiritual teachers.
Narrative Inquiry	Examining personal stories and experiences to understand how individuals construct reality and identity; connects individual stories to larger socio-cultural contexts and evolves over time.	Analyzing the stories of first-generation college students or immigrant families to understand their identity construction and community influences.
Case Study	In-depth exploration of a particular phenomenon within a defined context or bounded system; provides a holistic understanding of complex cases through multiple data sources and bounded parameters.	A case study on a school program addressing bullying, bounded by time, location, and specific interventions to assess outcomes and interactions within the school.

Time to Practice

As a qualitative researcher, selecting an appropriate research design is crucial for aligning with the study’s objectives and research questions. In this exercise, you’ll analyze each vignette to identify the most suitable qualitative research design. Follow these steps to guide your analysis: